The NileView

History of Alexandria: The Pearl of the Mediterranean

Alexandria, Egypt’s port city, has captured the imagination of historians, scholars, visitors, and locals for centuries. It is one of the most historic cities in the world, known for its rich cultural heritage, vibrant history, geographical significance, and pivotal role in trade. While the term cosmopolitan has its origins in ancient Greece and was first used in a philosophical context, Alexandria is often considered the first true cosmopolitan city in practice. Today, the term continues to evoke the spirit of openness and inclusion that characterized ancient Alexandria. Throughout its long history, the city has been a melting pot of cultures, languages, and religions, embodying the idea of cosmopolitanism and serving as a crossroads of civilizations, a beacon of knowledge and trade.

This edition of NileView is part of a series that highlights Egypt’s potential to become a leading global tourism destination, thanks to its rich ancient civilization, cultural heritage, iconic landmarks, and diverse natural landscapes. In a previous edition, Luxor: The Jewel of the Nile and Cradle of Civilizations, I discussed one of the world’s most fascinating open-air museums: Luxor. This edition focuses on one of the world’s oldest cities, a place with deep historical and cultural significance: Alexandria.

For Egyptians in general, and Cairenes in particular, July and August have long been the months when many head north to enjoy a summer break by the beach in Alexandria, where temperatures usually range from 27°C to 33°C. During that time, Alexandria transforms into a lively city, offering an unforgettable experience. The city’s coastline spans about 30 kilometers, with beaches known for their natural beauty and accessibility, along with a wide variety of water sports. A gentle breeze carries the scent of saltwater, and the soft sand invites everyone to enjoy the sea view under colorful umbrellas. Whether relaxing on the beach, exploring the city’s history, or experiencing its vibrant nightlife, Alexandria has something for everyone. This includes savoring local culinary delights that feature seafood, aromatic spices, and bold flavors, reflecting the city’s multicultural heritage. For a sweet treat, people indulge in pastries, fresh fruits, ice cream, traditional Egyptian delicacies, and rich coffee.

Alexandria is one of those cities that never sleeps. As night falls, the city’s energy shifts to a different rhythm. The restaurants and cafes encourage outdoor gatherings and offer perfect spots overlooking the Mediterranean, where people enjoy cultural performances and stunning sunset views over the water. The sound of music creates a lively atmosphere that lasts late into the night. No visit to Alexandria is complete without a walk along the Corniche, the city’s famous waterfront promenade. People enjoy the cool evening breeze, and street vendors sell roasted corn and sweet sugarcane juice. The Corniche is a place where history and modern life collide.

Some of the city’s iconic landmarks include the Qaitbay Citadel, a 15^th-century fortress that stands proudly at the edge of the harbor. The citadel’s ancient walls offer a stunning reminder of Alexandria’s rich history. Additionally, a deeper dive into the city’s past reveals a fascinating journey through the ages at the Alexandria National Museum– from ancient artifacts to Roman mosaics, the museum’s exhibits tell the story of a city that has been a crossroads of civilizations. A visit to the Montaza Palace is a real royal treat. The palace’s sprawling gardens, with their lush greenery and colorful flowers, are a haven of tranquility. The palace itself, with its blend of Ottoman and Florentine architecture, offers a glimpse into the opulence of Egypt’s royal past. Additionally, the Catacombs of Kom El Shoqafa are among the most significant archaeological sites from the Greco-Roman period, dating back to the 2^nd century CE. A unique blend of Egyptian, Greek, and Roman architectural and artistic styles, reflecting the cultural blend of Alexandria during that period. They are considered one of the Seven Wonders of the Middle Ages and are a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The blending of styles is a testament to Alexandria’s diverse cultural heritage.

The following timeline highlights some key moments in Alexandria’s history, from its founding by Alexander the Great to its current status as a thriving Mediterranean city.

Founded by Alexander the Great in 332 BCE during his conquest of Egypt, it has served as a cultural, intellectual, and economic hub for over two thousand years. He selected the site for its strategic location on the Mediterranean coast, making it a key center for trade and commerce, and a bridge between Europe, Africa, and Asia. The city was designed by the architect Dinocrates of Rhodes, who created a grid plan with wide streets, public buildings, and a harbor that would become one of the busiest in the ancient world.

The city gained fame for its impressive architecture, including the famous Lighthouse of Alexandria, also known as the Pharos Lighthouse (one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World), and the Library of Alexandria, a symbol of knowledge and learning. The library was perhaps the most famous institution of the ancient world. Founded in the early 3^rd century BCE, it served as a research institution and center for scholars, scientists, and philosophers from around the world, making it a place of intellectual exchange. The library is estimated to have housed thousands of scrolls and manuscripts. Scholars such as Euclid, Archimedes, and Eratosthenes worked at the library, making groundbreaking contributions to mathematics, astronomy, and geography. The library’s destruction remains a subject of debate among historians. Regardless of the exact circumstances, the loss of the library around 48 BCE during the Roman Civil War, under the reign of Julius Caesar, marked the end of an era of unparalleled intellectual achievement.

The city became the capital of the Ptolemaic Kingdom. This Greek dynasty ruled Egypt for nearly three centuries, turning Alexandria into a center of Hellenistic culture and learning. In 30 BCE, after Cleopatra VII, the last Ptolemaic ruler, was defeated, Egypt became a Roman province. Alexandria remained an important city in the Roman Empire and kept thriving as a cultural and economic hub. The city’s population was a mix of different cultures, including Greeks, Egyptians, Romans, and people from across the Mediterranean and beyond. This diversity showed in its architecture, religions, and daily life.

In the 1^st century CE, during the Roman and Byzantine periods, Alexandria was a major trading hub, connecting the Roman Empire with the East. Goods like grain, papyrus, and luxury items moved through its port, making it one of the wealthiest cities in the empire, and it remained a center of learning. The city also played a key role in spreading Christianity. According to tradition, Saint Mark the Evangelist founded the Coptic Church in Alexandria, making it one of the earliest Christian communities in the world. The city was home to notable Christian theologians, including Origen and Athanasius.

In 391 CE, the Library of Alexandria was largely destroyed during riots. During the 5^th and 6^th centuries CE, Alexandria remained an important cultural and religious center, but it experienced periodic conflicts and natural disasters, including earthquakes. In 641 CE, Alexandria fell to the forces of Amr ibn al-As, marking the beginning of Islamic rule in Egypt. Under the Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates, Alexandria’s influence declined as the new rulers focused on the newly established capital of Fustat (later Cairo). However, the city continued to be a vital port and a hub for trade and commerce, attracting merchants from the Mediterranean from the 7^th to the 15^th century. Alexandria maintained its status as a lively cultural hub, and its scholars made significant contributions during the Islamic Golden Age. The city’s lighthouse, which had stood for centuries, was destroyed by earthquakes in the 14^th century.

In 1517, the Ottoman Empire took control of Egypt, and Alexandria became one of its provincial cities. During that time, the city’s fortunes fluctuated because it was often overlooked by Ottoman rulers in favor of Cairo. However, Alexandria’s port remained busy, acting as a gateway for trade. The 18^th century saw a slow revival of Alexandria’s significance as European powers started to show interest in Egypt. Its strategic location made it an important player in the expanding trade between Europe and the East, and the city’s population began to increase again. By the end of the 18^th century, Alexandria was ready to reclaim its status as one of the top cities in the Mediterranean.

In 1798, Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Egypt, marking the beginning of a new era of European influence in Alexandria. Although the French occupation was brief, it left a significant mark on the city. After the French withdrew in 1801, Egypt came under the rule of Muhammad Ali Pasha, the Ottoman Empire’s governor, who started his reign in 1805 and is regarded as the founder of modern Egypt. Under his leadership and that of his successors, who ruled for 147 years, Alexandria experienced rapid development and growth. The city’s port was modernized, and new infrastructure, including railways and telegraph lines, was built. Alexandria emerged as a center of European culture and commerce, attracting foreign merchants and diplomats. By the mid-19^th century, Alexandria reclaimed its status as one of the most cosmopolitan cities in the world, with a diverse population that included Greeks, Italians, Armenians, and other ethnic groups.

In 1869, with the opening of the Suez Canal, Alexandria’s importance as a major port city in the Mediterranean was significantly boosted.

In 1882, Alexandria was bombarded by the British, leading to the British occupation of Egypt. The British invested heavily in the city’s infrastructure, which strengthened its importance as a commercial and cultural hub and established it as a key link in the British Empire’s global trade network.

In 1942, Alexandria played a crucial role in World War II, serving as a strategic base for Allied forces and a target for the Axis powers. The city served as a vital supply base for British troops fighting in North Africa, particularly during the Western Desert Campaign. Alexandria faced numerous air raids by Italian and German forces. Additionally, the decisive Battle of El Alamein, which marked a turning point in the war, was fought west of Alexandria, significantly influencing the course of the conflict in North Africa and the overall war.

The year 1952 marked the beginning of the decline of foreign influence in Egypt. Following the regime change from kingdom to republic in 1953, the end of British occupation in 1954, and the 1956 Suez Crisis, the city’s foreign population decreased as many Europeans left Egypt, and Alexandria became more distinctly Egyptian.

From the 1960s onward, Alexandria continued to grow, becoming a major industrial hub, and its port remained one of the busiest in the Mediterranean. In recent years, efforts have been made to restore the city’s historic heritage, including the construction of the Bibliotheca Alexandrina in 2002, a modern library and cultural center that honors the ancient Library of Alexandria with its striking architecture, tilted roof, and intricate designs.

Over the past few decades, as the population has grown, many Egyptians have shifted from spending summers in Alexandria to moving to Egypt’s north coast, west of Alexandria. They now enjoy a stretch of over 500 kilometers of golden sands and sparkling blue waters–an Egyptian Riviera on the southern Mediterranean coast, offering a variety of seaside experiences for families and young people alike.

For over a hundred years, Alexandria, with its rich history and cultural importance, has inspired many books across different genres, including historical accounts, travel stories, and literary works by a wide range of scholars, historians, and authors. Here is a selection of some of the best works written about Alexandria, covering its ancient past, its role in history, and its modern-day significance.

A History and a Guide by E.M. Forster (1922) offers a detailed account of life in the city during World War I and provides a vivid depiction of its history, culture, and landmarks, blending scholarly insight with personal observation; The Alexandria Quartet by Lawrence Durrell (1957-1960), a series of four novels set in Alexandria during the 1930s and 1940s, captures its exotic atmosphere and complex social dynamics, making it one of the most renowned literary works about Alexandria; The Collected Poems of C.P. Cavafy by Constantine Cavafy (1961), whose poetry is deeply connected to Alexandria, often evokes the city’s past and present; and Alexandria: City of the Western Mind by Theodore Vrettos (2001), explores the intellectual and cultural history of Alexandria, especially during the Ptolemaic and Roman eras, highlighting the city’s contributions to philosophy, science, and religion, as well as its role as a cultural melting pot.

Alexandria’s history is a testament to its longevity, resilience, and adaptability. From its founding by Alexander the Great to its role as a center of trade and learning in the ancient world, and its evolution through the medieval, Ottoman, and modern periods, Alexandria has continually reinvented itself while retaining its unique character. Today, the city stands as a living monument to its rich and diverse past, a place where the ancient and the modern coexist in harmony. As Alexandria continues to evolve, it remains a symbol of Egypt’s enduring legacy as a bridge between cultures and civilizations, weaving a timeless tapestry of diverse cultures.

About the author: Sherif Kamel is a Professor of Management and Dean of the Onsi Sawiris School of Business at The American University in Cairo.

15 July 2025
Issue #54